{"id":38721,"date":"2026-07-21T10:52:58","date_gmt":"2026-07-21T14:52:58","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.lpi.org\/articles\/\/"},"modified":"2026-07-21T10:52:58","modified_gmt":"2026-07-21T14:52:58","slug":"why-do-programming-languages-rise-and-fall-part-1","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.lpi.org\/fr\/blog\/2026\/07\/21\/why-do-programming-languages-rise-and-fall-part-1\/","title":{"rendered":"Why Do Programming Languages Rise and Fall? Part 1"},"content":{"rendered":"

Computer developers cluster around favored programming languages, as sports fans do around local or national teams. Some languages (Lua, for instance) find a very narrow niche whose devotees attribute great value to it. Other languages, such as C and C++, seem immortal. But many sink into oblivion, quietly and practically unnoticed, sometimes betraying an early promise. This two-part series looks at the rises and falls of some important languages.<\/p>\n

The Immortal<\/h2>\n

The C language was introduced in the early 1970s<\/a> along with the Unix operating system. The inseparable symbiosis between C and Unix (now Linux and BSD) ensures continued use of the language. But C (and its object-oriented extension, C++, introduced in 1979<\/a>) also offers an independent appeal.<\/p>\n

C is quick and easy to learn\u2014as well as quick and easy to abuse\u2014while providing an execution speed unmatched by higher-level languages. (C++ is trickier to get right.) That is why many newer languages provide interfaces for a programmer to tie in C\/C++ libraries, and these interfaces are richly exploited in critical packages such as Python’s NumPy, SciPy, and TensorFlow.<\/p>\n

However, C and C++ aren’t for every use case. They don’t protect against perennial programming errors and security flaws such as buffer overflows, which are found so commonly by AI, fuzzing, and other modern code scanners<\/a> that the errors seem almost a feature of the language’s use. C and C++ are good choices for slow-changing functions where peak performance is worth the difficulty of maintenance.<\/p>\n

JavaScript is the only other language I’ll include in the immortal category. Despite attracting many disparagers, JavaScript remains irreplaceable for dynamic web pages because no other language is supported by browsers (except the low-level WebAssembly). So developers just try to make it more or less what they want through extensions such as CoffeeScript or Elm, and\u2014the lifeblood of all languages\u2014powerful libraries.<\/p>\n

Java currently has a shot at achieving the longevity of C and C++. It was released in 1995<\/a> to be a \u00ab\u00a0better C++\u00a0\u00bb (and a portable language for web browser use). The focus of the computer field at that time was on object-oriented programming.. A glance at the most popular languages today (Java, Python, JavaScript, and more) shows that objects have become the building blocks of programming<\/p>\n

So Java, created at Sun Microsystems, became the programming language of choice in large corporate environments, and is still the most common language in computer science college programs<\/a>. It has evolved enormously to incorporate the discoveries of more recent languages and remain useful.<\/p>\n

Microsoft, in fierce competition with Sun, refused to meekly adopt Java and introduced its competing object-oriented language, C#, in 1990<\/a>. Some proponents swear that C# is superior to Java (perhaps having learned from Java’s early mistakes), but C# hasn’t come close to overtaking Java, even when supported by the free and open source Mono Project<\/a>. The main role of C# and Mono is to support Microsoft\u2019s comprehensive .NET framework.<\/p>\n

PHP, which was created to handle the server side of dynamic web pages, has fared much better than many observers expected. It still undergirds an enormous number of web sites\u201471% of them according to one survey<\/a>. Like other successful languages, it has evolved to fix many of its early weaknesses. In languages, as in businesses, there’s a good argument for offering a \u00ab\u00a0minimum viable product\u00a0\u00bb (MVP) and refining it later.<\/p>\n

When it comes to immortal languages, many developers hope to hoist Rust into that higher sphere (and in particular to be used for new programs in place of C and C++). It’s too early to tell whether Rust will fulfill that promise, but I suspect it will not. It’s too complex and abstract for most programmers, in my opinion. And complexity leads to design flaws<\/a>, which no language aiming to conquer production environments can tolerate.<\/p>\n

Respectable Life Cycles<\/h2>\n

Other languages fulfill an important need during a particular period of computing history and then fade away. COBOL and FORTRAN fall in that category. COBOL was universal in business, and FORTRAN in science and engineering. Many FORTRAN veterans remind us proudly that it got astronauts to the moon.<\/p>\n

Businesses and researchers adopted these languages with alacrity because they were right for the times. They drove forward a couple generations of economic prosperity and scientific progress. Then the time came to retire COBOL and FORTRAN, as programming became more professional and its practitioners sought better maintenance and security.<\/p>\n

Some programs never die, even if their languages do. COBOL’s continued importance<\/a> was highlighted in the light 1990s by the Y2K crisis, and COBOL programmers are still needed<\/a>, believe it or not. Having learned COBOL for a technical writing job many years ago, I found it pretty easy, so I don’t think it would be hard for young go-getter programmers to pick up the language and replace the superannuated retirees.<\/p>\n

By the way, don’t bother writing to tell me about places that are still using a language I’ve flagged as dead. Just consider the example of natural languages. Latin is unarguably a dead language, but there are still international conferences where everyone speaks Latin<\/a>, even in the hallways and cafeterias, and the Vatican keeps its Latin lexicon<\/a> up to date for official pronouncements. Hebrew as an everyday spoken language was dead by 500 BCE, but poets continued to write in Hebrew<\/a> continuously after that, even before it once again began to be used \u00ab\u00a0on the street\u00a0\u00bb in the twentieth century. Sanskrit also plays a critical role as a liturgical language with few current speakers<\/a>.<\/p>\n

FORTRAN programmers happily churned out unmaintainable mounds of functions in a format adapted from punch cards, with variables labeled I and J and no documentation at all, a disease labeled \u00ab\u00a0spaghetti code.\u00a0\u00bb We’ll see in the next article how some computer science researchers tried to fix that.<\/p>\n

FORTRAN was such a constant companion to science and engineering that one of its developers famously promised<\/a>, \u00ab\u00a0I don’t know what the language of the year 2000 will look like, but I know it will be called Fortran.\u00a0\u00bb But computer science itself advanced past what FORTRAN could do. Its developers toiled over a new version code-named Fortran 8X for such a long time that the place-holder X \u00ab\u00a0became hexadecimal\u00a0\u00bb and the language was ultimately called Fortran 90. The first book I ever edited, working freelance for the publisher O’Reilly, was a book on Fortran 90 that became a critical success and a commercial failure.<\/p>\n

BASIC should also get a nod here. It was invented in 1963<\/a> with the intention of making programming easy for non-programmers, and it took off wildly among office workers and amateur hackers. The language was upgraded for modern graphics applications on Windows when Microsoft introduced Visual Basic, including an IDE. The language persisted in day-to-day use for some time after Perl and other scripting languages emerged from the Unix ecosystem.<\/p>\n

So I’m including BASIC in this section\u2014even though it never played a role as central as COBOL or FORTRAN\u2014because it filled an important niche (amateur programmers) and lasted a long time.<\/p>\n

Perl is another long-lived language I include in the \u00ab\u00a0respectable life cycles\u00a0\u00bb category. It was the first scripting language that directly addressed the laziness of system administrators: in short, their desire to automate system administration tasks some two decades before the concept of DevOps was developed. Perl became indispensable and had the honor of driving the first practical programs running on World Wide Web servers to handle dynamic web pages.<\/p>\n

Perl was wildly creative and allowed innumerable ways to show a programmer’s cleverness: too many ways, in the long run. One competitive pastime among Perl hackers was to show how much useful code they could pack into a one-liner. A Perl 4 program that I unfortunately inherited and had to maintain was designed entirely around statements such as<\/p>\n

$firstline or print ...<\/code><\/p>\n

The word or is supposed to be an operator in Perl, but in the hands of the bumbler who left that program for me to maintain, it became a control flow structure. The line means, \u00ab\u00a0if the $firstline<\/code> variable is not set, print the items that follow.\u00a0\u00bb (LISP is famous for similar \u00ab\u00a0lazy evaluation.\u00a0\u00bb) The whole program, I eventually realized, was a complex state machine that stored that state in a plethora of global variables like $firstline<\/code>.<\/p>\n

So Perl (even though it still undergirds legacy code at isolated sites) eventually succumbed to a number of competing languages. One of these, Python, is now dominant. Some of the others make their appearance in the next installment of this series.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Computer developers cluster around favored programming languages, as sports fans do around local or national teams. Some languages (Lua, for instance) find a very narrow niche whose devotees attribute great value to it. Other languages, such as C and C++, … En savoir plus<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":44,"featured_media":38722,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[1],"country":[],"language":[304],"ppma_author":[495],"class_list":["post-38721","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-none","language-english"],"acf":[],"yoast_head":"\nWhy Do Programming Languages Rise and Fall? 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His editorial projects at O'Reilly Media ranged from a legal guide covering intellectual property to a graphic novel about teenage hackers. Andy also writes often on health IT, on policy issues related to the Internet, and on trends affecting technical innovation and its effects on society. Print publications where his work has appeared include The Economist, Communications of the ACM, Copyright World, the Journal of Information Technology & Politics, Vanguardia Dossier, and Internet Law and Business. Conferences where he has presented talks include O'Reilly's Open Source Convention, FISL (Brazil), FOSDEM (Brussels), DebConf, and LibrePlanet. Andy participates in the Association for Computing Machinery's policy organization, USTPC.\"}]}<\/script>\n<!-- \/ Yoast SEO Premium plugin. -->","yoast_head_json":{"title":"Why Do Programming Languages Rise and Fall? 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